Previous: Introduction
Part I: The context of their appearance
Reflux Ottoman Balkans
Ottoman Empire received a considerable flow of muhacir ( refugees Muslims) in the nineteenth century . The Balkan crises successive gave rise to countless abuses Christian Orthodox against various Muslim region ( Turkic hellénophones, Slavic, Albanian ), and destruction of the Turkish-Ottoman monuments : this was the case in Greece in Serbia and Bulgaria . Upon Greek War of Independence (1821-1830) , local Muslims were forced to flee the Peloponnese independent. The Albanian Muslims Region Niš were expelled by Serbs in 1878. Half a million Muslims out from Bulgaria in 1876-1880 following the Bulgarian nationalist uprising backed by the Russians . The creation of nation-states Greek, Serbian and Bulgarian relied on ethno-religious cleansing in the name of a spurious concept of the nation ( mixing religious identity inherited from the Ottoman millet logic and modern Jacobin homogenizing nation-state ), the denial of the existence of Muslims: a fundamental break with the Ottoman system, which if it had a lot of discrimination of a religious nature (although not always to the disadvantage of Christians) do not tolerate the existence of less non-Muslims. This break, this is not the Turks who want and have made the first, important as precision after events. George Prevelakis noted that these "ethnic cleansing" were then fully accepted by the great powers "civilized." In Macedonia, in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the stirring of komitacı (Christian rebels) was a persistent nuisance (attacks against the railways, the police, community leaders, destroying mosques) .
Russian Expansion
The Tsarist Russia conquered the Caucasus in modern times. The Azeri Muslims (Turkic) were the majority on the current territory of the Republic of Armenia the early nineteenth century, only after a long colonial / Armenian-tsarist treatment (settlement policy anti-Muslim, with the bumping by migrants Armenian the Ottoman Empire and Persia , as and when the Russian conquests, attracted by land benefits) that the territory became mono-ethnic. The Karabakh was also largely populated by Azeri families in the early nineteenth century. In 1905 to 1907, the Azeris were victims of many massacres committed by Armenians in the Caucasus. North Caucasian Muslims ( Abkhazians and Circassians ) were subjected to a repressive policy extremely barbaric (deportations and massacres, like Sochi ) who was evicted from their natal territories (they were too replaced by Armenians ). The Armenians were used by Moscow as part of its settlement policy anti-Muslim (who also uses Russian settlers and the Cossacks), because considered more docile than the Georgians. the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878 (during which the Russians took the region Kars-Ardahan ) led to the departure of half a million Muslims Caucasian. In Ukraine, the Russian conquest of the Crimean peninsula made from many Tatars (Russian colonization). The Kazan Tatars were meanwhile spared, relative tolerance that has enabled them to acquire an economic elite enjoying a modern education.
Demographic Changes
Justin McCarthy estimated 5 million the number of muhacir (refugees Muslims leaving Balkans and the Russian Empire for what remained of the Ottoman Empire ) in total, and many deaths, the Greek War of Independence to the First World War . It is estimated that 2 million immigration for the sole reign of Abdulhamid II (1876-1909). These muhacir had lost loved ones and their property, following the pogroms and a perilous journey, one can imagine the disastrous impression has caused them the spectacle of rich Christians (even employing domestic Muslims) upon arrival . This accentuated the character Immigration Muslim in the human composition of the Ottoman Empire, hence the logical development of pan-Islamism which leaned Abdulhamid II. The latter was anxious to arrange the installation of muhacir with the creation of a Commission on Refugees, but he did not attempt to Turquise simply to integrate them in a Muslim society.
The Muslim element came out strengthened by these migrations, but he knew, however, a declining population with multiple causes (mortality, male mortality due to the conscription of Muslims, abortions) in favor of the Christian element: thus, for example, the proportion of Christians increased on the Aegean coast .
Guardianship of great Christian powers
The Treaty of San Stefano and Congress of Berlin (1878) entérinèrent the interference of the great Christian powers in Ottoman internal affairs (lobbying for reforms pro-Armenian , endorsement of Serbian and Romanian independence, autonomy Bulgarian payment of money to Russia, dropping Cyprus and Tunisia).
The England would secure the route to India, France the that arose as protector of Christians in East wanted to control the Levant, the "Holy Russia " claiming to be the "Third Rome" flag bearer of Christianity had designs on the eastern Anatolia and the Straits (down to the seas hot), the Austria wanted expand in the Balkans. But there were differences: England wanted a weakened Ottoman Empire but not immediately disintegrated, that Russia did not withdraw the best benefits. By blowing on the embers, cynically using the principle of nationality (the right to self-determination was he respected by the English in Ireland and India, by the French in Algeria, the Russians in Poland?), the ulterior motive of the great powers was precipitated and supervise the Ottoman decline to make the most.
Foreign investment mainly developed lines of communication (railways, ports), and little industry. The English and French were a stranglehold on the finances of the Ottoman council of the Ottoman Public Debt (founded in 1881 ). In
1904, under the pretext of unrest in the region, an international constabulary (formed by the Great Powers) settled in Macedonia , which meant a further decline in the face of foreign interference.
Empire "sick man of Europe" was thus reduced to the rank of a semi-colony.
Half failure of reforms sultanas
The Tanzimat (reforms), triggered by the Sultan Abdülmecit in the first half of the nineteenth century had proclaimed principles for the secularization of law, modernization of education and the military, civic egalitarianism, Westernization of government institutions. The objectives were only partially achieved.
spirit reviver of Tanzimat was hampered by Abdulhamid II , on behalf of a conservative Muslim prickly but mostly instrumental (he himself was not a bigot, because drinking at alcohol and ignoring non-practice of Ramadan in government offices) in 1878, he put an end to the Ottoman Parliament and Constitution adopted in 1876 .
Abdulhamid II had a good intuition by using the cooperation with Germany to expand the empire, including lines of communication: IInd Reich did not represent in fact a territorial threat. the railway Bucharest-Berlin-Baghdad was built by German engineers and technicians. The Ottoman army (equipment, training) has been modernized by German advisors. The weight of
zimmi (non-Muslims), supported by the Christian powers (right of inspection granted by capitulations), in the scheme was overwhelming: they dominated the trade, they had in their hands three quarters of industrial capital in 1913-1915.
Terrorism Armenian
The nineteenth century is regarded as the "Golden Age" of Armenian bourgeoisie of the Ottoman Empire: indeed, given the progressive loss of Greece, the Armenians were favored at expense of the Greeks level positions to be filled Ottoman institutions (finance, diplomacy, education), the entourage of Abdulhamid II himself had many Armenians senior (after Francis Georgeon , its sub Secretaries of State for Foreign Affairs, Justice and Public Works were Armenian). Armenians were seen as most Christians loyal to the Porte: wrongly, as the Armenians of Kars-Ardahan immediately greeted the Russian soldiers as liberators. Deep in Anatolia, the Armenian peasants saw cons by their living conditions deteriorate due to inconsistent taxation, banditry and tribal leaders Kurdish and vampirism of Armenian usurers. An Armenian terrorist appeared: the activists of the Armenian committees Hintchak and Dashnak were followers of ethnic nationalism sprinkled Socialist-Marxist influences (While Marx Engels and expressed serious reservations about the propaganda turcophobe at the end of their lives), anarchist and populist (model Narodniki Russian). They inaugurated the practice of hostage-taking (that of the Ottoman Bank in 1896 ), striking the heart of the capital of the Ottoman Empire. They orchestrated deadly uprisings against Muslims (police or civilian) training detachments of snipers and arming the Armenian population of eastern Anatolia (the one Zeytun in 1895, that of Van in 1896 that killed 500 Muslims) : Thus, serious disturbances have occurred in this region between Armenians and Muslims (especially Kurds). Muslims knowing indebtedness to moneylenders Armenian parasitic and other economic difficulties faced by frontline bloody turmoil of the Armenian committees, perceiving it as a threat to their existence (experience muhacir ) the draft Armenian autonomy (and what happened at the same time in the Caucasus under Russian domination gave them a "taste"), devoted themselves against the Armenians in the kinds of uprisings. For the Armenian terrorists, it was cause as much bloodshed as possible to provide a pretext for foreign intervention. By making the noisy support of the claims of Armenian terrorists, the great powers provoked the rise of a feeling of anger among Turks.
Discoveries turcologiques
Scholars from very different backgrounds made themselves the pioneers of turcologie and put forward the singularity, including linguistic, Turks: Hungarian and Polish exiles fleeing the repression of Spring People and converted to Islam (like Polish Mustafa Pasa Celaleddin aka Constantine Borzecki , author of ancient and modern Turks ), teachers Ashkenazi Jews (David Leon Cahun France, Ármin Vámbéry Hungary), the Ottoman Muslims (the first Ottoman Parliament President Ahmet Vefik Paşa, the philologist Albanian Sami Frashëri , historians Süleyman Paşa and Necip Asim ) Tatar emigrants ( İsmail Gasprinski / Gaspıralı ).
Researchers theorized Hungarian membership of the Turks and Hungarians one family "Turanian (Ural-Altaic), are the ones who popularized the term "Turan " to refer to Central Asia. Caught between Germanic and Slavic worlds, the Magyars were studying their own specificities, and this infatuation with respect to their nomadic roots, uncovered, with enthusiasm, affinities with the Turks.
The Japanese victory over the Russians at Tsushima (1905) had a great impact among the Ottoman Turks: an emerging non-Christian power, which, as we learned recently, distant kinship with Turkish (Ural-Altaic), was to inflict a defeat a Christian power, which was a hereditary enemy of the Ottoman Empire. The Japanese model combining accelerated modernization and nationalism aroused great curiosity.
is in the light of emerging discoveries of turcologie highlighting the depth and breadth of the fact that the Turkish poet Mehmet Emin Yurdakul exclaimed "I am a Turk, my race, my religion is great! "
The foundations of a strong sense of identity and Turkey were asked.
few glimmers of hope in the "accursed night"
Poet Tevfik Fikret in 1908 will evoke the "accursed night" despotism Hamidian. In the late nineteenth century, a boy of Diyarbakir, plunged into a severe depression, attempted suicide, as the future seemed bleak immeasurably for his country: the violent conflict between a triumphant West on all fronts and a Muslim empire declining, it seemed so insurmountable. His name was Mehmet Ziya .
few glimmers of hope pierced the darkness. Taking place around a bubbling streams of new ideas: Namik Kemal, a poet, writer and essayist, is the Young Ottomans , Militated against absolutism Hamidian and continued the business of Tanzimat in accordance with Islam.
A handful of idealists and refused to accept and face the fact, trying to make their way to make a revival salvation, to break the monotony and resignation ambient.
Next: In Opposition
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